Sociology, Culture And Identity

A.Swaby-Burton
Contributor

HOW DOES SOCIETY WORK?

IN ORDER to achieve clarity and precision of meaning, interpretation and expression, sociologists have developed over time certain concepts and definition that are generally accepted by all academics within the discipline, despite their theoretical
orientation.

Some of these common concepts along with their meanings and how they relate to other concepts will be highlighted in the following lesson.

Many of the concepts to be discussed originated in the functionalist school of sociologist thought, as such they tend to carry a functionalist bias. Despite this, they are used universally and are generally accepted by all sociologists.

QUESTIONS 1

Define the following concepts

* Society

*.Values

*.Norms

* Sanctions

QUESTION 2

Differentiate between status and roles

b) How does an individual obtain status?

QUESTION 3

What is Socialisation?

b) Outline the different types of socialisation.

ANSWERS

A). SOCIETY

When we use the term society in sociology, what do we really mean? Well there is no one defi-nition for the term society, as such there is no consensus as to the exact meaning of the term. The definition used here might not satisfy all sociologist. However, in its general usage, whenever we say society, we are referring to the basic facts of human association. According to Stephens, Seach, et al in Thinking Sociology, "society is a very large grouping of institutions typically existing within a geographical boundary called a country."

In their book Sociology ­ the Science of Society, Rumney and Maier point out that the concept of society has been used to "include every kind and degree of relationship entered into by man, whether these relations be organised or unorganised, direct or indirect, conscious or unconscious, co-operative or antagonistic. It includes the whole issue of human relations and is without a boundary or assignable limits."

Thus, far from being something concrete, society as a concept refers to something almost intangible, and which is in a constant state of flux and change. Rather than being made up of individuals, society is made up of the actions of the individuals, and how these individuals relate to each other through their actions (Dr. E. Osoba & B. Steele, UWI, Mona)

VALUES

Values are socially shared ideas about what is good, right and desirable. It is what people consider to be important or good. For example freedom, liberty.

According to Talcott Parsons values provide a general conception of what is desirable and worthwhile

The values of a society are important because they influence the content of its norms. If a society values education highly, its norms will make provision for mass schooling. If it values a large population, its names will encourage big families. If it values monogamy, its norms will not permit people to marry more than one partner at a time. In principle at least, all norms can be traced to a basic social value.

Norms

Norms are shared rules and expectations about behaviour. They also concern the rules that govern social action. Norms are also the behaviour that the majority of people in the society regard to be proper, right and customary. Norms can be seen as specific expressions of values. Norms ensure that to some extent behaviour is standardised predictable and orderly. There are many different types of norms; some are rigidly enforced and upheld than others. For example mores and folkways.

It is important to note that norms are related to values, in that values justify norms. If for example, we value freedom of speech, we allow people to speak their minds even if we do not agree with them. The norm of tolerance derives from the value we place on individual freedom. Fairly trivial norms, like lining up at ticket windows or bus doors instead of pushing to the front, are called folkways. Folkways may determine our style of cloth our diet and our manners. Mores are more important norms. These are rules of conduct that carry moral authority, violating these rules directly challenges society's values.

However, like values and beliefs, some norms within a given culture conflict with each other, and not everyone shares a belief in all of society's norms.

Sanctions

Sanctions are the rewards and punishments for conforming to or violating cultural norms. Positive sanctions (reward) may range from an approving nod to a ceremony of public acclaim; negative sanctions (punishment) may range from mild disapproval to imprisonment or even execution. Only a tiny fraction of social behaviour can be policed by formal agencies of control, and most sanctions are applied informally. For example, if you help your neighbours and are polite to them, you will be rewarded with smiles and even popularity. If you use 'bad' language in the wrong company or offer your left hand rather than your right when someone wants to shake hands with you, you will receive raised eyebrows, glares, stares or comments designed to make you uncomfortable and more likely to conform to social expectations in the future.

2. Differentiate between status and roles.

To understand how society works, we not only have to understand the components of society or culture, but we also have to look at how men are affected by these components of culture to bring about social action. Of importance to the understanding of, and the analysis of social interaction are the concepts of 'role' and 'status'.

A society consists of individuals. Each of these persons occupies one or more socially defined positions in the society - woman, carpenter, son, teacher old person and so on. Such a position is called a status. A person's status determines where that individual "fits in society and how he or she relate to other people. The status of daughter, for example, determines the occupant's relationships with other members of the family. Naturally, a person can have several statuses simultaneously, but one of them, usually an occupational status, tends to be the most important, and sociologists sometimes refer to it as the person's "master status".

The word "status" can be used either to refer simply to one of the many socially defined positions rank higher or lower than others. In most societies there is considerable inequality among different status.

Associated with each status is a set of rules and norms which guides the person occupying the status position as to the expected behaviour for that status. The set of rules and norms associated with a status position are referred to collectively as a role. Status and role are different aspects of the same reality. Status is the social position that is occupied by a member of society. Role is the behaviour patterns that are expected or required by society of the person occupying that particular status position.

It must be noted 'role' and 'status' exist independently of the individual. When persons occupy certain social positions they often have to learn the role associated with that position. As stated by Osoba and Steele, "social roles are learned as men and women acquire the culture of the group." However, a role may become so much a part of the individual's personality that a person is not aware that he is playing a role, or be aware of his status.

The sociological concept of role is taken directly from the theatre, it refers to the part or parts you play in society. Thus the distinction between status and role is a simple one; you occupy a status, but you play a role. Status and role are thus two sides of the same coin. (see diagram below).

How does an individual obtain status?

Sociologists classify statuses in terms of how people obtain them. An 'ascribed status' is a social position that someone receives at birth or assumes involuntarily later in life. Examples of ascribe statuses include being a daughter, young, old, male, female, black or white. Ascribed statuses are matters about which people have little or no choice.

By contrast, an achieved status refers to a social position that someone assumes voluntarily and that reflects personal ability and effort. It is acquired by direct and deliberate action. For example, being a Sociology student, a thief or a computer programmer.

In reality, though most statuses involve some combination of ascription and achievement. That is people's ascribed statuses influence the statuses they achieve.

Status and Role

Due to the fact that we occupy many statuses simultaneously everyday life is a mix of multiple roles, (role set).  

(graphic adapted from Maciones and Plummer)

Robert Merton (1968) introduced the term role set to identify a number of roles attached to a single status. The above diagram illustrates the status set and corresponding role sets of one individual. Four statuses are presented, each linked to a different role set. First, the female occupies the status of 'wife' with corresponding roles in relation to her husband with whom she would share a 'domestic role' in terms of maintaining the household.

Secondly, she also holds the status of mother with responsibilities for her children as well as obligations (civic role) to their school and other organisations. Thirdly, as a professor, she interacts with students (teacher role) as well as with other academics (the colleagues role).

Fourth, her role as a researcher (the laboratory role) generates data she uses in her publications (author role). It must be noted that the above diagram lists only a few or some of this persons status and role sets.

This lesson will continue in next issue.