Theoretical perspectives and social order cont'd
By A. Swaby-Burton, Contributor

IN THIS week's issue, I will be continuing the discussion on the functionalists theoretical perspective on the above topic. If time permits, discussion will proceed to include the Marxist perspective.

Durkheim in his discussion on social order found it difficult and uncomfortable to imagine a society which ran entirely on practical lines and one in which shared values played little part. He believed that individuals needed to be part of, or integrated into, a wider moral community. He described the situation in which norms and values break down as 'anomie'. A society characterised by anomie loses its cohesion and ceases to be a community. Anomie for Durkheim's refers to a situation where norms are absent, or at least unclear. Durkheims analysis of the cause and effects of anomie are of considerable interest. He argued that it was in time of great change particularly economic change, that anomie is likely to occur. When the basic conditions of social life change, existing morals, beliefs and norms governing conduct became less relevant. For example, work is seen as a major source of personal identity and fulfillment, however, this is now being undermined by the impact of the new micro-chip technology which reduces the need for human labour. Until adequate new means of self-identification can be found, this change is likely to produce anomie in society. There are no clear rules for this new social situation. This affects the way people behave, uncertain of what to think and do, individuals can become depressed, morally insecure and destructive or aimless in their behaviour. These are signs that society is, sick or of 'social pathology' to use Durkheim's own term. This concept is fundamental to Durkheim's analysis of deviance.

Now lets turn our attention to functionalist's perspectives on social order since Durkheim. Five major points can be distinguished about social order as stated by Durkheim with which more recent functionalists would agree. In particular these points have greatly influenced the theoretical work of Talcot Parsons. The points are:

* Values are the basis of social solidarity (or order).

* Social solidarity changes from mechanical to organic as society itself becomes more complex.

* Social order is more natural and normal than disorder.

* Disorder does occur in society and it is likened to pathology (or disease).

* These assumptions about social order and disorder powerfully reflect the biological or organic analogy.

In many ways Parson's work is a continuation of Durkheims although it also reflects that of Weber as well as containing some original elements. Unlike Durkheim, Parson wanted to describe in detail how society works as a system. The result of this is Parsons system theory. Here, I will highlight the importance of order in Parson's system's model. The basic of this model is that order has to be maintained so that society can meet human needs and so that individuals can contribute to society.

Parsons stated that "if such a system is to constitute a persistent order or to undergo an orderly process of developmental change certain functional prerequisites must be met." Functional prerequisites can be regarded as problems that any society must solve if it is to continue to exist. He believed that there were four such problems and he argued that it was in response to these problems that society developed an institutional structure.

Firstly, the system must be adapted to its environment. If this did not happen, society would not be able to provide its members with the means to survive. The result would be disorder and anarchy.

Secondly, the system must make provision for goal attainment. This is basically the situation where all social systems require procedures through which its members can agree on collective goals. Beside establishing the goals there is the need to decide on priorities, to allocate resources, and to ensure that the resources are used for the proper purposes.

Thirdly, there is the problem of pattern maintenance and tension management which must be resolved. Individuals must be motivated to perform socially necessary roles.

Finally, there is the problem of integration. This problem is met by institutions whose primary function is to contribute solidarity to the social systems. One way in which this is achieved is by cultural and community organisations. For example, institutions like organised religion and mass education furnish members of society with collective representations. This contributes to social order because individuals who share a 'symbolic universe of meaning' find it easier to co-operate in different sphere of life. However, as well as fostering common values there is also a need to enforce common norms. This is one of the functions of legal institutions.

Robert Merton another functionalist debated social order. He along with others but especially he, built the concept of disorder and conflict into functionalist thought. He also highlighted the notion of dysfunction as a necessary balance to that of function. Merton revised Durkheim somewhat, in doing so, he considered that anomie occurs when the goals of society for example, a good standard of living, are not matched by provision of the means to attain them, for example, there may not be enough well-paid jobs. Those persons who are excluded from the legitimate opportunity structure may turn to deviant means to achieve what they want. In this way, theft would be a way of obtaining a higher standard of living. Mentor's work does introduce greater elements of disorder and conflict into functionalism, but it is to Marxist sociology that one needs to look to find fuller and richer treatment of these issues.

Join me next week as I move on to Marxism and social order.