Biological, psychological and sociological theories of crime
By A. Swaby-Burton, Contributor

WELCOME AGAIN. In this week's issue the lesson at hand will deal with the biological, psychological and social explanation of crime.

BIOLOGICAL

In the late 19th (century) the Italian physician Cesare Lombroso (1911) linked criminal behaviour to certain types of physical traits. He believed that people were predisposed to certain kinds of behaviour by their biological make up. The criminal type, he claimed, is a throwback to earlier stages of human education. The type could be identified by such traits as a long lower jaw, a sparse beard and low sensitivity to pain. Lombroso's theory was widely held and other social thinkers followed his lead and linked deviant behaviour with a variety of physical traits.

William H. Sheldon (1940), an American psychologist and physician, stressed the importance of the body structure. He held the view that, just as certain breeds of dogs are likely to show certain patterns of behaviour, people in whom certain body types are dominant are likely to show certain personality traits. The endomorpha persons with a soft, round body, tends to be sociable, easy-going and self-indulgent. The mesomorph, whose body type is hard and angular, is likely to be restless, energetic and insensitive. The ectomorph, who is lean and fragile tends to be introspective, sensitive and nervous. After studying 200 boys at a rehabilitation centre, Sheldon concluded that mesomorphs, while they were always delinquent are most likely to be deviant. (Sheldon et al, 1949).

Although biological theories like these remain popular even in the early 20th (century) they have been weakened by later research. There is some evidence that certain mental disorders, especially schizophrenia, may have a genetic component. Also certain biological traits, such as shortness or some deformities, may have psychological effects on a person. As stated by critics, any biological explanation of deviance probably must take into account a complex set of factors.

More recent biological explanations of deviance focus on anomalies in the deviant person's sex (X Y) chromosomes. Normally a female has two X chromosomes while a male has one X and one Y. However, a person can have an extra X or Y chromosome XXY, XYY or very rarely XXX etc.

Price and Colleagues (1966, 1967) in a study of male patients in a special security institution in Scotland, found that those with an extra y chromosome tended to be taller than average and to be severe psychopaths.

PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS

Another approach in explaining the causes of deviance also focuses on the traits of the deviant person. The psychological approach discussed and addresses criminal behaviour. Early thinkers who looked for psychological explanations of deviance stressed general states, for example 'mental defects,' 'degeneracy,' 'feeblemindedness' and 'psychopathy'. Criminologists tried to find scientific ways to measure the connection between such states and criminal behaviour. Psychoanalysts proposed theories that linked deviant acts with various psychological problems. One such theory held that criminals have not formed the inhibitions needed to restrain their aggressive impulses. In the area of sexual deviance, some psychologists saw such behaviour as exhibitionism resulting from an unresolved "castration complex".

Careful research has shown that deviance cannot be explained by psychological factors alone. In 1950, two researchers reviewed a large number of studies that tried to show that delinquents and criminals had certain psychological traits that non-criminals did have. They found that none of the studies came up with a single trait ­ such as emotional immaturity, instability or disturbance that could be seen in all criminals (Schessler and Cressey 1950).

Today most psychologist and sociologists recognise that personality and motivation probably play an important part in all kinds of deviant behaviour. But it is most likely that these factors combine with others ­ especially social factors ­ to produce deviance. In other words, it is almost useful to look for any single psychological trait, 'conflict,' or 'complex' to explain criminality or any other kind of deviance. We need to keep in mind that many forms of deviance are minor involving such behaviour as speeding, drug use, or petty tax evasion. This kind of deviance generally only occur some of the time. It is unlikely that a specific trait can explain why certain persons commit a certain act at a certain time and behaves in non-deviant ways the rest of the time. Also, if a specific trait produces deviance, why do so much deviant behaviour occur among people who are usually thought to be normal or even admirable? Politicians who take bribes, doctors who abuse drugs, bank officers who embezzle funds ­ are people with good reputations. It is unlikely that such people are psychopathic criminals. It is more likely that social factors combine with psychological factors produce deviance of this kind. (Cohen 1966).

Join me next week as we continue the discussion on the sociological explanation of crime and deviance.